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Dysfunction of the dopamine system is one of the most significant risk factors for addiction, according to a 2009 article by Dreher et al., published in the journal PNAS , titled Variation in dopamine genes influences responsivity of the human reward system. Drug addiction is an archetypal gene by environment disorder, as noted in a 2019 article by Lisa R

A more stringent criterion requiring nicotine abstinence from all sources is represented by paths 2a and 3d in Figure 17-1

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Tobacco Control 20: 100106